CH.8 Auxiliaries and Functional Categoriesㅣ 영어 임용고시

1. Complementizers

1.1 The selection of Complementizers

1) a) I think that Art likes his beer

1) b) I think Art like his beer

1) c) *I think for Art to like his beer

1) d) *I think Art to like his beer

1) e) *I think if Art likes his beer

: think라는 동사는 finite인 clause를 취한다

: "I think if Art likes his beer, then we should get him some for his birthday"에서 if는 가능한 이유는, 이때의 'if'는 condition을 표현하고 있기 때문이다

: 즉, if가 embedded question을 기능할 때에는 whether로 대체 가능하지만, conditiond의 기능을 할 때에는 대체 불가

 

2) a) I ordered that Art drink his beer

2) b) I ordered Art drink his beer

2) c) ?I ordered for Art to drink his beer

2) d) I ordered Art to drink his beer

2) e) *I ordered if Art drink his beer

: order이라는 동사는 finite이든 non-finite이든 상관없다

 

3) a) *I inquired that Art like his beer

3) b) *I inquired Art likes his beer

3) c) *I inquired for Art to ike his beer

3) d) *I inquired Art to like his beer

3) e) I inquired if Art likes his beer

: inquire이라는 동사는 interrogative complement clause를 취한다

 

4) a) that [-Q, +FINITE]

4) b) null [-Q, +FINITE]

4) c) for [-Q, -FINITE]

4) d) null [-Q, -FINITE]

4) e) if/whether [+Q, +FINITE]

: 이러한 feature을 통해서 동사를 표현 가능

: null complementier는 alterants of overt ones이다. 그래도 같은 feature을 지닌다

 

5) think

Agent DP	CP [-Q, +FINITE]

 

6) order

Agent DP	CP [-Q]

 

7) inquire

Agent DP	CP [+Q, +FINITE]

 

 

 

 

1.2 Selection by Complementizers

 

8) a) *Heidi thinks that Andy to eat salmon-flavored candy bars

8) b) Heidi thinks that Andy is eating salmon-flavored candy bars

8) c) Heidi thinks that Andy has eaten salmon-flavored candy bars

8) d) Heidi thinks that Andy should eat salmon-flavored candy bars

8) e) Heidi thinks that Andy will eat salmon-flavored candy bars

8) f) Heidi thinks that Andy eats salmon-flavored candy bars

8) g) Heidi thinks that the salmon-flavored candy bars were eaten

: that은 to하고만 못 쓴다

: T node 'to'는 [+INFINITIVE]로 표현할 수 있다

 

9) that 

TP [-INFINITIVE]

 

 

2. Determiners

 

10) a) the muffin

10) b) a muffin 

: the와 a는 singular NP를 취할 수 있다

 

11) a) the muffins

11) b) *a muffins

: the만 plural complement를 취할 수 있다

: 이같은 특징은 [+/- PLURAL]로 표현 가능하다

 

12) a/an

NP [-PLURAL]

 

13) the

NP

: the는plural 상관없어서 따로 표시 안함

 

14) a) *The Andrew

14) b) *The him

: the나 a/an은 proper noun과 pronoun과 함께 쓰일 수 없다

 

15) a) a

NP [-PLURAL, -PROPER, -PRONOUN]

 

15) b) the

NP [-PROPER, -PRONOUN]

 

17) a) The carpenter struck the nail

17) b) Franco struck Adolph

17) c) He struck it

17) d) Raindrops struck rooftops

: 이렇게 모든 NP는 determiner를 취할 수도 있고, 안 취할 수도 ===  null determiners의 가능성을 보여줌

: 하지만 그렇다고 DP가 아닌 NP는 아니다. 다 DP이다

: 하지만 왜 pronouns, proper names, plurals에 null determiner가 있게 되는지는 아직 설명 못함

 

19) a) many dogs

19) b) much water

19) c)*many waters

19) d)*much dog 

: water같은 noun은 [-COUNT]이고, dog와 같은 noun은 [+COUNT]이다

 

20) a) many

NP [+COUNT, +PLURAL, -PROPER, -PRONOUN]

 

20) b) much

NP [-COUNT, -PLURAL, -PROPER, -PRONOUN]

 

21) a) all the boys

21) b) the three boys

: 원래 determiner는 하나밖에 못 온다고 하였지만, 이에 대한 반례가 있다

: all이 쓰이거나/ numerals가 있거나 할 경우이다

: 이때에는 all과 같은 D가 또다른 DP를 complement로 취한다고 보면 된다 

 

23) all

DP

 

 

 

3. Understanding Tense, Aspect, VOice, and Mood

3.1 Tense

24) a) past tense: the event tiem happened before the assertion time

24) b) present tense: the event time is the same as the assertion time

24) c) future tense: the event time is going to happen after the assertion time

: Tense = the tim eof an event relative to the time at which the sentence is either spoken or written 

: 과거형은 -ed suffix를 붙이거나 special past tense form을 사용한다

: 현재형은 unmarked하거나 -s suffix를 붙인다

: 미래형은 modal를 사용하거나 present tense를 사용해서 한다 (특별한 inflected future tense가 없다)

 

3.2 Perfect Aspect

25) John had eaten his sandwich before I could get hm his pickle

: Aspect= making refernce to some other point, typically other than the speech time, then looking at when the event happens relative to that reference point

: John had eaten his sandwich은 event time이고, I could get hm his pickle은 refernce point이다

: perfect= happens when the time of the event occurs before the reference time

: perfect은 have라는 auxiliary와 함께 한다

: tense는 have에 표현하면 된다 (had/ have, has/ will have)

 

26) a) by attaching an '-en' or '-n' suffix

26) b) by attaching an '-ed' suffix

26) c) by using a special participial form

26) d) by making no change at all

: 이런 식으로 participle을 표현할 수 있다

 

3.3 Progressive Aspect

29) Jeff was dancing with Sylvia while Amy sat angrily at their table

: progressive = an event that is ongoing in relation to the reference time

: progressive는 be와 gerund와 함께 한다

 

3.4 Voice

: vocie= a phenomeno that changes the number of arguments and position of arguments that a verb uses

: active와 passive 종류가 있다

: passive voice는 be와 participle이 함께 한다

 

3.5 Combine Tense, Aspect, and Voice

32) The soup had been being eaten

: tense-> perfect -> progressive -> passive -> main verbs 순으로 쓰면 된다 

 

3.6 Mood

34) Modals of English: can, could, may, might

: Mood= the speaker's perspective on the event- in particular, whether the event described is a possibility, a probability, a necessity, or an obligation

: 이런 식으로 Mood는 modal로 표현 가능하다

: modal뿐만 아니라, adjectives나 다른 auxiliaries or verbs 그리고 adverbs로도 표현 가능하다

 

35) a) Jeff must have eaten the deep-fried muffin

35) b) *Jeff has must eaten the deep-fried muffin

: modal은 Aux 다음에 나와야 한다

 

36) a) Jeff must not have eaten the deep-fried muffin

36) b) *Jeff not must have eaten the deep-fried muffin

: modal은 negation 다음에 나와야 한다

 

37) *Jeff musts eats a deep-fried muffin

: modal은 agreement inflection을 취할 수 없다 

 

 

 

4. Auxiliaries

4.1 Main verb vs. Auxiliary Verb Uses of be, have, and do

 

38) a) Calvin has a peanut

38) b) Susan has a cold

39) c) Bill had an accident

: 여기서의 have는 possession을 나타낸다

: 즉, 어떤 meaning이 있는 have

: 뒤에는 DP 취함

 

39) a) Calvin has eatn a peanut

39) b) Frank has drunk too much

39) c) Bill has been dancing 

: 여기서의 have는 possession의 의미가 없다

: 뒤에는 participial form of the verb를 취한다

 

40) a) Dane is a doctor

40) b) Jorge was the one

: 여기서의 be동사는 copular be이다

: copular be는 indicate that the subject has a certain property or is identified with a particular role

 

41) a) Alex was eating the popsicle

41) b) Megan was sat on by her brother

: a)에서의 be는 progressive이고, b)에서의 be는 passive이다

 

42) a) Catherine did her homework

42) b) Calvin did a back flip

: 여기서의 do는 meaning을 갖고 있다 

: accomplish 혹은 perform의 의미를 갖고 있다

: 뒤에 NP가 온다

 

43) a) Catherine did not eat

43) b) Calvin did not do a back flip

: 하지만 여기서의 do는 meaning을 갖고 있지 않다

: 뒤에 (negated) verb가 온다

: 이 do는 negation환경에서 tense morphology를 지닌다

 

44)

Name	Meaning	Subcategory
be (cop)	Copular (identity/ property)	Main verb
be (prog)	Progressive	Auxiliary
be (pass)	Passive	Auxiliary
have (poss)	Possession	Main verb
have (perf)	Perfect	Auxiliary
do (main)	Accomplishement/ performance	Main verb
do (aux)	SUpports tense before negation	Auxiliary

: 이렇게 Main verb와 Auxiliary verb를 구분할 수 있다

 

45) a) Has Pangur eaten his tuna?

45) b) Is Pangur eating his tuna?

45) c) Did Pangur eat his dinner?

45) d) *Ate Pangur his dinner?

: main verb는 inversion을 겪지 못하지만, auxiliaries는 inversion을 겪을 수 있다

: the "main" verb uses of 'do' and 'have' cannt invert

 

46) a) *Has Calvin a bowl?

46) b) *Dis Calvin his homework?

: main verb로서의 do와 have는 inversion불가하다

 

47) a) Angus is not leaving

47) b) Calvin has not eaten his dinner

47) c) Pangur did not play with his mouse

47) d) *Calvin ate not his dinner

47) e) *Pangur plays not with his mouse

: 오직 auxiliary와 modal만이 not전에 올 수 있다

: main verb는 negation 전에 올 수 없다

 

48) a) *Calvin has not any catnip

48) b) *Angus did not his homework

: possessive의 의미인 have와 main verb로서의 do는 auxiliary가 아니어서, negation전에 올 수 없다

 

 

4.2 Modal vs. Auxiliaries

49) a) I should not eat plums

49) b) *I have not should eat plums

49) c) *I must can eat plums

49) d) *I have should eat plums

49) e) *I want to should eat plums

: be와 have와 같은 AUX는 inflectional suffix를 가질 수 있다. not과 negated 가능. modal 뒤에 옴. to 뒤에 옴.

: 반면에 Modal은 verbal inflectional ending을 지니지 않음. not 뒤에 올 수 없음. 다른 modal 뒤에 못 옴. 다른 aux 뒤에도 못 옴. to 뒤에도 못 옴

: 즉, 한개의  modal  문장 맨 앞에 나와야 한다

 

 

50) a) Calvin will not eat the beef waffles

50) b) *Calvin not will eat the beef waffles

50) c) *Calvin could will eat the beef waffles

50) d) *Calvin will could eat the beef waffles

: future tense marker인 will은 modal과 같은 분호를 지닌다.

: negation 앞에 위치해야 하고, 다른 modal과 함께 쓰일 수 없다

 

51) a) I date deep-fried muffins

51) b) He always eats deep-fried muffins

51) c) *I might ate deep-fried muffins

51) d) *He always might eats deep-fried muffins

51) e) I/he might eat deep-fried muffins

51) f) He will eat deep-fried muffins

51) g) *He will eats deep-fried muffins

: 또한 will은 tense or agreement inflection을 지니지 않는다

: 뒤에 항상 bare form의 동사를 취한다

: 즉, will은 다른 modal과 같이 기능한다는 점을 알 수 있다

: 그리고 modal이 present일 때, 어떠한 morphology도 붙지 않는다는 것을 알 수 있다

: (결론) modal은 category T에 위치한다

 

52)

[FORM bare]

[FORM participle]

[FORM gerund]

[FORM preterite]

[FORM present]

: modal verb는 아무 tense morphology가 안 붙는 동사를 취한다는 것을 부호화해서 보여줄 필요가 있다

: 그래서 FORM을 활용하여 feature 만들어낸 것

 

53) should

VP [FORM bare]

 

 

4.3 Past and Present Tesne Markign in English

 

55) a) Calvin   0[past]    ate the beef waffles

55) b) Calvin      can      eat the beef waffles 

: 원래 있었던 문제는 modal이 T node에 있음에도 불구하고, present/ past tesne morphology가 verb에 온다는 것이다

: 이는 FORM으로 해결 가능하다

: 0(pres) 와 0(past)를 사용하면 된다

 

56) 0(past)

VP [FORM preterite]

 

 

 

4.4 Perfects

57) a) Sylvia will be slapping Jeff upside the head in martial arts class

57) b) Sylvia could be slapping Jeff upside the head in martial arts class

57) c) Sylvia  0(past) was slapping Jeff upside the head in martial arts class

57) d) Sylvia 0(pres) is slapping Jeff upside the head in martial arts class

: T node다음에 오는 성분은 auxiliary이다.

: auxiliary는 V 성분이어야만 한다

: 왜냐하면 T는 항상 VP를 취하기 때문이다

 

58) a) The cat had eaten

58) b) The cat had been eating

59) c) The tuna had been eaten

59) d) *The cat had haven eaten

59) e) *The cat had musten eat

: Have(perf) 다음에는  main verb 가능. progressive aux가능. passive aux가능. 또다른 perfect aux 불가능. modal 불가능

 

 

4.5 Progressive Auxiliaries

62) a) The cat was leaving

62) b) The tune was being eaten

62) c) *The cat was being eating

62) d) *The cat was having eaten

62) e) *The cat was musting eat

: Progressive 다음에는 main verb 가능. passive 가능. 또다른 progressive는 불가능. perfect 불가. modal 불가

 

 

4.6 Passive Auxiliaries

65) a) The cake was eaten

65) b) *The cake was been eaten

65) c) *The cake was been eating

65) d) *The cake was have eaten

65) e) *The cake was musten eat

: Passive 다음에는 main verb만 가능. passive 불가. progressive 불가. perfect 불가. modal 불가

 

 

4.7 Do-supports

68) a) Reggie chased the ball

68) b) Reggie did not chase the ball

: auxiliary가 없는 동사를 negate할 때, do동사 필요

: 즉, null T (0[past] or 0[pres]) 일 때이다

 

69) a) Oh, he DID chase the ball indeed!

: 이건 do/did/does (emph) 이다. 

: emphatic하고자 쓰이는 do

 

70) a) Did Calvin eat the beef waffles?

70) b) What did Calvin eat?

: 이건 do/did/does (Q)이다

: question에 사용되는 do

 

71) a) *John must not do have eaten

: Do(neg)는 not를 따라야 하고, not 뒤에는 항상 bare form의 verb만 허용된다

: 즉, do(neg)는 NegP를 취한다고 볼 수 있다

: 즉, negative 'do'는 negation을 취하고, negation은 bare verb를 취하는 것

: Negation은 항상 do auxiliary와 함께 한다 (왜냐하면 다른 T node들은 negation을 취하지 않기 때문이다)